Section 1 Introduction.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 Two States of Life.- 1.2 Diel Patterns and the Biological Clock.- 1.3 Doing the Right Thing at the Right Time.- 1.4 History of an Idea.- 1.5 Why Do We Know That Little?.- 1.6 Why Small Mammals?.- 1.7 About this Book.- References.- Section II Theoretical Considerations.- Theoretical Considerations - Introduction.- 2 Activity Patterns and the Biological Clock in Mammals.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 The Circadian Clock.- 2.3 Circadian Clocks in Mammals.- 2.3.1 General Features.- 2.3.2 Temperature Effects on the Circadian Clock.- 2.3.3 Physiological Influences on the Circadian Clock.- 2.4 Entrainment of Rhythms by Light and Other Signals.- 2.4.1 Light.- 2.4.2 Food Availability.- 2.4.3 Non-photic Zeitgebers.- 2.4.4 Social Factors.- 2.5 Localisation of the Circadian Clock in Mammals.- 2.5.1 The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus.- 2.5.2 Anatomy and Neurochemistry of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus.- 2.6 Overview of the Major Activity Pattern Types in Mammals.- 2.6.1 Terminology.- 2.6.2 Nocturnal.- 2.6.3 Diurnal.- 2.6.4 Crepuscular.- 2.6.5 Ultradian.- 2.6.6 Acyclic.- 2.7 Effects of Semi-natural Environments in the Laboratory on Activity Patterns.- 2.8 Daily Activity Patterns: Flexibility, Variability and Interaction with Other Rhythms.- 2.8.1 Between Species in Their Activity Patterns.- 2.8.2 Species Variability in Activity Patterns.- 2.8.3 Interactions of Circannual Rhythms with Circadian Rhythms.- 2.9 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 3 Activity Patterns and Metabolism.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 The Energy Budget and Its Limits.- 3.3 The Structure of Energy Budgets.- 3.4 Food Acquisition: Foraging Rates, Foraging Costs.- 3.4.1 Indirect Estimates Based on Allometry.- 3.4.2 Foraging Rates Estimated from Activity Budgets.- 3.5 Constraints on Foraging Activity.- 3.5.1 The Model.- 3.5.2 Numerical Solution and Empirical Evidence.- 3.6 Activity Patterns Under High Energy Loads.- 3.7 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 4 Ecological Relevance of Daily Activity Patterns.- 4.1 Increasing Fitness by Activity Timing.- 4.2 Autecological Advantages of Appropriate Timing.- 4.2.1 Shiftwork in the Habitat.- 4.2.2 A Matter of Season.- 4.3 Inter-individual Aspects.- 4.3.1 Community Life.- 4.3.1.1 Spacing Behaviour.- 4.3.1.2 Social Contacts.- 4.3.2 Tied by Conflict.- 4.3.2.1 Prey.- 4.3.2.2 Predators.- 4.3.2.3 Temporal Coevolution?.- 4.3.3 The Temporal Niche.- 4.4 Concluding Remarks.- References.- Section III Empirical Findings.- Empirical Findings - Introduction.- 5 Weasels and Martens - Carnivores in Northern Latitudes.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Metabolic Consequences of Mustelid Size and Shape.- 5.3 Proximate and Ultimate Effects on Activity.- 5.3.1 Foraging Time, Meal Patterning and Digestive Constraints.- 5.3.2 The Visual System.- 5.3.3 Temperature and Season.- 5.3.4 Competition.- 5.3.5 Predator Avoidance.- 5.3.6 Social and Reproductive Behaviour.- 5.3.7 Prey Availability.- 5.4 Conclusions.- References.- 6 Mongooses, Civets and Genets - Carnivores in Southern Latitudes.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 General Trends in Activity Patterns.- 6.2.1 Overview.- 6.2.2 Relationships Between Activity Patterns and Ecological Attributes.- 6.3 Activity Patterns of Egyptian Mongooses and European Genets.- 6.3.1 Data Collection.- 6.3.2 Start and End of Activity.- 6.3.3 Total Activity Time per 24-h Day.- 6.3.4 Time Budget.- 6.3.5 Relationships Between Predators and Prey Activity.- 6.4 Discussion and Conclusions.- References.- 7 Squirrels - Medium-Sized Granivores in Woodland Habitats.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 The Daily Activity Pattern.- 7.2.1 General Pattern and Seasonal Variation.- 7.2.2 Geographical Variation.- 7.3 Foraging Behaviour and the Activity Pattern.- 7.3.1 Foraging and Activity of Red Squirrels in Coniferous Woods.- 7.3.1.1 Winter (December-February).- 7.3.1.2 Spring (March-May).- 7.3.1.3 Summer (June-August).- 7.3.1.4 Autumn (September-November).- 7.3.2 Habitat Effects.- 7.4 Activity Pattern and Intraspecific Competition.- 7.4.1 Sex Differences Between Adults.- 7.4.2 Age Differences.- 7.5 Conclusions.- References.- 8 Activity Patterns of Kangaroo Rats - Granivores in a Desert Habitat.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Nocturnality.- 8.3 Mating Effort and Aboveground Activity.- 8.4 Activity Levels and Predation Risk.- 8.4.1 Moonlight Avoidance, Crepuscular Compensation, and Predation Risk.- 8.4.2 Does Predation Maintain Heterogeneity of Activity Profiles?.- 8.4.3 Sex Differential Predation Risk? A Methodological Caveat.- 8.5 An Unresolved Question.- References.- 9 Gerbils and Heteromyids - Interspecific Competition and the Spatio-Temporal Niche.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Gerbils and Daily Temporal Partitioning.- 9.3 Heteromyids and Seasonal Temporal Partitioning.- 9.4 Concluding Remarks and Synthesis.- 9.4.1 Temporal Partitioning and Its Relation to Species Coexistence.- 9.4.2 Synthesis.- References.- 10 Wood Mice - Small Granivores/Insectivores with Seasonally Variable Patterns.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Seasonal Patterns of Activity.- 10.3 Environmental and Physiological Influences on Activity Patterns.- 10.3.1 Environmental Influences.- 10.3.2 Physiological Influences.- 10.4 Intra- and Interspecific Influences on Activity.- 10.4.1 Intraspecific Influences.- 10.4.2 Interspecific Influences.- 10.5 Discussion.- References.- 11 Voles - Small Graminivores with Polyphasic Patterns.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Seasonal Patterns of Activity.- 10.3 Environmental and Physiological Influences on Activity Patterns.- 10.3.1 Environmental Influences.- 10.3.2 Physiological Influences.- 10.4 Intra- and Interspecific Influences on Activity.- 10.4.1 Intraspecific Influences.- 10.4.2 Interspecific Influences.- 10.5 Discussion.- References.- 12 Djungarian Hamsters - Small Graminivores with Daily Torpor.- 12.1 Djungarian Hamsters: Through Cold Winters on Hairy Feet.- 12.2 Measurements of Locomotion, Temperature and Metabolic Rate.- 12.3 Model Calculations.- 12.4 Adjustment of Locomotor Activity Patterns to Environmental Changes.- 12.5 Energy Requirements For Activity - The Impact of Cold Load.- 12.6 Locomotion and Daily Torpor: Interactions.- 12.7 Budgeting of Time and Energy Under Natural Conditions.- 12.8 Constraints, Unknowns, and Alternative Strategies.- References.- 13 Shrews - Small Insectivores with Polyphasic Patterns.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Methods.- 13.3 Factors Influencing Activity Rhythms.- 13.3.1 Food.- 13.3.2 Light, Weather, and Seasonal Factors.- 13.3.3 Sex and Reproduction.- 13.3.4 Optimal Foraging and Competitors.- 13.4 Conclusions.- References.- 14 Bats - Flying Nocturnal Mammals.- 14.1 Introduction.- 14.2 Flight Activity Patterns under Natural Conditions.- 14.2.1 Recording Methods.- 14.2.2 Timing of Flight Activity.- 14.2.3 Activity Patterns.- 14.2.4 Effect of Environmental Factors on the Timing and Pattern of Flight Activity.- 14.2.4.1 Light.- 14.2.4.2 Ambient Temperature.- 14.2.4.3 Precipitation and Wind.- 14.2.4.4 Food Abundance.- 14.2.5 Effect of Endogenous Factors on the Timing and Pattern of Flight Activity.- 14.3 Activity Patterns in the Laboratory.- 14.4 Conclusions.- References.- Section IV Conclusion.- 15 Chronoecology: New Light Through Old Windows - A Conclusion.- 15.1 A New Term - And a New View.- 15.2 Activity Patterns and Evolutionary Ecology.- 15.3 Chronoecology and the Biological Clock.- 15.4 Chronoecology and the Energy Household.- 15.5 Chronoecology - Where Ecology Comes In.- 15.5.1 Predation.- 15.5.2 Interspecific Competition.- 15.5.3 Intraspecific Organisation.- 15.6 Future Challenges in Chronoecology.- References.- Measuring and Analysing Activity of Small Mammals in the Laboratory and in the Field.- 1 Methodology - Reality Constraints to Wishful Thinking.- 2 Recording Activity - Free Choice Among Drawbacks.- 2.1 Activity Cages.- 2.2 Enclosures.- 2.3 Field Studies.- 2.3.1 Trapping.- 2.3.2 Automatic Recording with Passage Counters.- 2.3.3 Radiotelemetry.- 2.4 Activity Recording - A Conclusion.- 3 Analysis of Biological Time Series - Possibilities and Limitations.- 3.1 Data Collection.- 3.2 Graphic Presentation of Data.- 3.3 Pretreatment of Data.- 3.4 Mathematical Methods of Time Series Analyses.- 3.4.1 Cosinor Analysis.- 3.4.2 Che-Periodogram.- 3.4.3 Fourier Analysis.- 3.4.4 Maximum Entropy Spectral Analysis (MESA).- 3.5 Time Series Analysis - A Conclusion.- 4 Activity Indices - Special Solutions For Noisy Field Data.- References.
